Detonation, Pre-Ignition, and Engine Knocking

Detonation — generally caused by fuel with a low octane rating — is the tendency for the fuel to pre-ignite or auto-ignite in an engines combustion chamber. This early (before the spark plug fires) ignition of fuel creates a shock wave throughout the cylinder as the burning and expanding fuel-air mixture collides with the piston that is still traveling towards top-dead-center. The resulting knock or ping is the sound of the pistons slamming against the cylinder walls. The effects of detonation may be anywhere from arbitrary to severe. Prolonged and intense knocking can break the piston or the engine, though it is can also endure this slight issue for thousands of miles. Similarly, overheating may cause additional wear-and-tear on the engine, be relatively harmless or cause the engine to catch on fire and break. Common Causes of  Detonation Detonation is most often caused by the use of low-grade engine fuel and its resulting deterioration of your engines parts. However, chamber design plays a key role in determining when and if an engine might detonate unexpectedly. The shape, size, spark location and geometry of the design all help determine where these detonations are likely to occur. An overheated spark plug tip can also cause pre-ignition. This may cause a pinging to occur in your vehicle when driving down a highway, but can actually be sustained in the engine for thousands of miles. If you hear a metallic clicking sound while driving long distances, you should consult your mechanic and see if your  spark plug needs to be replaced. Common Effects Detonation can cause three types of engine failure depending on source and severity: abrasion, mechanical damage and overheating. Mechanical damage happens because the heightened impact of nature can cause parts of the internal combustion engine to fracture. This can especially affect the top or second piston ring land or even the exhaust or intake valves. In  abrasion, the piston head is slowly eroded, creating a microscopic swiss-cheese effect on its surface resulting in less efficiency and eventual breakdown. Overheating, though, is a more serious issue which acts almost like a snowball effect once it starts. Caused by the boundary gas layer getting interrupted against the cylinder head and heat transferring to the coolant via the cylinder head, this overheating of the engine will continue to happen as temperatures increase causing more detonation.   Common Solutions Fortunately, there are a number of solutions to pre-ignition. The best solution is obviously to see your mechanic about the issue, but if you have experience in engine repair, you may also look to the following methods to reduce the chances of engine detonation. Switching to a higher octane fuel in order to reduce the heat of the firing chamber and burn fuel more slowly is the best way to combat false firing. Similarly, reducing engine inlet air temperatures will greatly reduce the chance of pre-ignition and detonation. As a principle, for every 10 degrees cooler the inlet air is, it produces one percent more power. Adjusting engine timing may also help solve this issue. If your engine is firing during throttle at low engine speeds, you may need to adjust the timing two to three degrees.

We live in a society today that says that image is...

We live in a society today that says that image is important. The messages that the movies, music videos, and magazines gives us about what beauty is suppose to look like can be very demanding. From the super thin models to the long weaves and big bootys. Societys view of beauty is especially hard for the women of today, we are constantly being told that beauty is being thin and never being told to be happy with who we are. The way we are suppose to look can cause a heavy burden on some peoples lives thus causing some people to develop an eating disorder. An eating disorder is defined as a group of serious conditions in which you are preoccupied with food and weight that your rarely focus on anything else (www.mayoclinic.org). The most†¦show more content†¦People with this disorder have a fear of gaining weight even when they are underweight. They have a tendency of dieting all the time or exercising for long periods of time. The exact cause for anorexia is unknown because i t is different for each indiviual but some of the reasons can be genes, hormones and social attitudes towards body types. Anorexia is known to hit females in their pre teen to teenage years and can affects them all the way into young adulthood. It is mainly common among women but their have been cases of this disorder in men. It is also commonly found in caucasion women that are high achievers in school and have goal oriented families (www.nlm.nih.gov). Symptoms of this disorder also include a fear of gaining weight or getting fat, not having a period for more than three cycles in women, having a distored image of what their body looks like. They tend to limit the amount of food that they eat and they may make themsleves throw it back up or use diuretics to make themselves urinate or have a bowel movement. Eating disorders are very serious sitiuations that need to be handled with care. They are so harmful to ones body and can cause death in an indiviual i it is not handled properly. Some people label this as a mental illness and I do believe that their is something mental about these disorders. There is something in this persons mind that causesShow MoreRelatedMedia And Its Effects On Society1709 Words   |  7 Pagesmore socially acceptable in today’s society than it was hundreds of years ago, which is mostly caused by technological advances. As technology expanded, so did our generation’s tendency for violence. With all the breakthroughs in social interaction using technology, the media has become a large contributor to society. Coinciding with the first amendment to free speech, the media is a very valuable and powerful tool in spreading information when used for important purposes. However, many people abuseRead MoreThe Sun Starts To Set As Your Making A Rather Difficult1242 Words   |  5 Pageshad a creative mindset for audiofile, always loving to find the deeper message in the words you listen to. As nighttime starts to peak, you finally start to settle in the car along with your friends ready to turn some music on. As you and your friends delightfully sing the miraculous tune, you all suddenly start to hear multiple small snippets of beeps that cover up partially the song. Blocking the creative words you want to say, you all realized y all chose a censored version of a song, that youRead MoreHow in the News Media the Image Becomes More Important than the Message?808 Words   |  4 Pagesactual message portrayed. We simply observe or recite if the news media is outrageous or affects to the lives of the icons presently in the interest. Currently, the image of privacy connected with individuals providing newscasts has entirely disappeared. 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As you can see the media is very important and popular. The media has been a popular creation throughout the decades. As time passed the media develops from magazines to the television to the internet. The media in our society is everywhere. We see it everywhere from the time we wake up until we go to sleep. We wake up, eat breakfast then we turn on the television or read the paper. From theRead MoreThe Effects Of Music On Our Lives1576 Words   |  7 Pagesinfluence of sound particularly music? To begin, our life would consist of incredibly quiet spaces. Music plays a vital role in our lives, whether it is attending music festivals to attending religious ceremonies. In many ways, music is the composition of our lives that defines society. As a reflection of society, it allows us to remember how things were in the past, how things are now in the present and lastly presents a view of how things might be in the future. 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I believe that cinemas in third world countries are seen as a luxury therefore it serves as a way of sending a message to the masses. â€Å"In the past few years, there has bee n a multiplication and diversificationRead MoreEssay on Music Censorship1049 Words   |  5 PagesMusic Censorship   Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Ã‚  Today, in the 1990s, citizens in our society are being bombarded with obscene material from every direction. From the hate lyrics of Guns N Roses to the satanic lyrics of Montley Crue and Marilyn Manson to the sexually explicit graphical content of todays movies, the issue is how much society is going to permit and where we, as a society, should we draw the line. The freedom of speech has always been considered a right, but that doesnt mean that you can shout, FireRead MoreEssay about Radical Feminism and Hip Hop1550 Words   |  7 Pageshas spread to both urban and suburban communities throughout the world. 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Human Computer Interaction Samples for Students †MyAssignmenthelp.com

Question: Discuss about the Human Computer Interaction. Answer: Introduction The Internet has turned into an imperative specialized apparatus for information, commerce and research. It gives bottomless advantages to clients in connection to access to data, business exchanges and excitement. Moreover, the Web permits "consumers to educate themselves about the information or products at their own pace, furthermore, the consumers can instantly access only that information which is pertinent to their needs". The key standards behind planning an online business site are "to fulfil clients' needs, also, to get their fulfilment in a focused market of on the web and disconnected deals and data administrations. The website must be designed in specific way by using perfect graphics and text. Therefore, the HCI design principle is very much important. This paper is intended to analyse the interactive aspects and user interface design of the https://www.jigsawstore.com.au/ website. This paper includes the website details, main features and functionalities, positive and n egatives aspects. Moreover, the user testing methodology is also applying to analyse this website. All the test details also include with this report. After analysis a recommendation is also include in this report. Website background Jigsaw Store is a one of the biggest online puzzle store in Australia. They only sell puzzle. In this website has many different type of puzzles. Jigsaw Store is home to outstanding amongst other choices of jigsaw baffles on the web. they have something for each age and expertise level with jigsaw confuses running from two pieces as far as possible up to 40,320 pieces. They stock significant brands including Piatnik, Heye, Blue Opal, Jumbo, Eurographics, Holdson, Ravensburger, Sunsout, Djeco, Doug, Janod, Melissa and Mudpuppy. They offer quick transporting Australia wide for one low level rate of $9.95 per arrange. They additionally offer a request get choice from our office at Ultimo for clients situated in Sydney They sell puzzles for every age groups. They have variety of puzzle brands in their website. Jigsaw Store is part of Ed Resources Pty Ltd a leading retailer of toys, books, and school supplies in Australia. They also sell puzzle accessories along with the puzzles. The acce ssories like Puzzle Conserver Permanent, Puzzle Store Carry Case, Deluxe Wire Puzzle Rack and many more. Objectives The main objective of this report is to analyse the https://www.jigsawstore.com.au/ website that they maintaining the principle of human computer interaction or not. The objective of this report is given bellow: To analyse the design of the Jigsaw store website To find the positive aspect of the Jigsaw website To find the main features of the Jigsaw website To find the negative aspect of the Jigsaw Website To analyse the human computer interaction (HCI) design principle Main Features of the website This website https://www.jigsawstore.com.au/ has many features but from all of them the main features are described below: Advance navigation system The navigation system is well structured. All the categories are listed in the navigation panel. More users friendly navigation system attracts more users. Therefore, the navigation system of the website is one of the main features. Advance search option the search option will help the users to find their desired things. In the website the search option is worked perfectly and very quick. Its provide all the available information that are presented with in this website. Search functionality provide suggestions on the possible things to their users that they are looking for. Product description The online store is not a live store. Therefore, the website must have the product description for their users. A creative and clear description will help the website to attract more visitors. In this website the product description is clearly given. Order pick up T he order picked up option is also available in this website. The customer can place an order form the website and can pick up this order from the nearest physical store of the website. Interactivity This website is very much interactive because they used two way communicate with their process with their business and consumer. Product Category All the product is categorized according to their types. Therefore, it will help the customer to find their products. Shopping cart the most important features of any e-commerce website is the shopping cart. This website is an e commerce website. Therefore, the shopping cart option is the most needed. This website provides the shopping cart option to their customer. Login facility Login system is one of the most important option of any website. This website has a login option available for their customers. The customer can login or register. They can store their details in this account. Logo Logo is also another important thing for every website. The logo must be the same as the business category they have. In this case, this website sells the puzzle and their logo is also like puzzle. Therefore, the logo is another big features of the website. Positive and Negative Aspect of the website Every website has positive and negative aspect. The positive and negative aspects are given bellow: Positive Aspect In this website, the pages do not use tables for designing purpose. None of the pages of this site utilize tables for design. This is astounding, as utilizing tables for format is redundant and they should just contain unthinkable information. A well-assembled site should utilize div components and CSS to make the coveted design. All pages were found to utilize characterized headings. This is superb as it permits guests and web indexes to condense the substance of site pages rapidly. Effectively characterized headings help availability and are especially vital for site design improvement. All pages of this site seem, by all accounts, to be upgraded for printing (utilizing CSS). The whole site seems, by all accounts, to be streamlined for review on a cell phone or a tablet. All pages were found to utilize page titles properly. Page titles show up in query items and at the highest point of the program's window when going by the site. Fitting page titles are especially imperative for web crawler optimization. This site utilizes suitable web addresses (URLs) all through. It is incredible and helps web crawler arrangement, convenience and attractiveness of this website. This site was presented with GZIP encoding. This is great since it lessens the stacking time of a page. Negative Aspect None of this site is utilizing any perceived investigation programming. It is as yet conceivable to accumulate a lot of data from webserver logs; however total guest investigation requires customer side JavaScript or a picture not found here. No pages are W3C consistent. Since there are blunders in the code, some web programs will be unable to peruse this site effectively and it may not generally show accurately. This site does not restore a 404-mistake HTTP status code for missing pages. This is terrible in light of the fact that web indexes like Google may mix up this for a genuine page of substance. Most pictures (91.0%) don't have characterized sizes utilizing width and stature qualities in the HTML. These qualities are discretionary, yet emphatically prescribed as they enable the program to orchestrate the page faster. 21 joins have no content depicting their goal. Connections on a page ought to portray their goal for the advantage of both screen peruses and internet searcher creepy crawlies. All pages incorporate in any event some metadata, however just 60.0% of pages have a depiction Meta tag. The depiction Meta information is critical as it shows up on Google's query output pages. User Testing Method For the audit of designated site, two companions were picked who are associated with a similar course of Responsive website architecture from CQ University. Member 1 is 24 year matured Male and Participant 2 is 25 years aged Female. The survey was directed by utilizing two indistinguishable gadget settings. Participant 1 - This member looked into the site under Medium show with determination of 480 x 640 pixels. From the survey, it has been resolved that regardless of the variances in show measure, the member was alright with the route and in addition feel of the site. Nonetheless, it was to some degree hard to discover certain things because of littler screen estimate. The member was general happy with the look and feel of the site and additionally responsiveness. Screenshot 1: Participant 1 display (480 x 640) Participant 2- This member inspected the site under minor show of 400 x 640 pixels. The responsiveness and feel of the site was astounding as indicated by the survey anyway, it set aside some opportunity to stack the pictures for items, which made it a period taking procedure for member to see and select the items. Screenshot 2: Participant 2 display (400 x 640) Recommendation From the data assembled, numerous upgrades can be made for the Jigsaw store site to enhance the experience of its clients. A portion of the significant proposals have been given as underneath: Resolve the approval mistakes that are recorded in the table beneath as the blunders are keeping this site from being completely W3C consistent: No pages are W3C agreeable. Since there are blunders in the code, some web programs will most likely be unable to peruse this site accurately and it may not generally show effectively. Consider a main site examination arrangement, for example, Web Trends or Google Analytics: None of this site is utilizing any perceived investigation programming. It is as yet conceivable to assemble a lot of data from webserver logs; however entire guest examination requires customer side JavaScript or a picture not found here. Ensure that the web server restores a 404 HTTP status code for mistake pages: This site does not restore a 404-blunder HTTP status code for missing pages. This is awful in light of the fact that web indexes like Google may mix up this for a genuine page of substance. Conclusion The selected site for testing takes after the fundamental plan standards as indicated by responsive website architecture nonetheless, with the usage of proposed proposals it could thrive the outline in a more effective way. The enhancements in the plan will contribute towards expanding the fulfilment of clients and making it simpler for the clients to use the site valuably. It can have closed from the survey that the site is fitting for satisfying the requests of the clients however a few adjustments can be made in the plan to draw in more clients and enhance the attractiveness of Jigsaw store. Bibliography Bollens, E., Rocchio, R.A., Peterson, J.E., Pollack, B., Tirpak, L. and Ward, C.M., 2014. Understanding Responsive Web Design in Higher Education. ECAR Working Group Paper.EDUCAUSE. Carver, M., 2014.The responsive web. Manning Publications Co. Diefenbach, S., Kolb, N. and Hassenzahl, M., 2014, June. The'hedonic'in human-computer interaction: history, contributions, and future research directions. InProceedings of the 2014 conference on Designing interactive systems(pp. 305-314). ACM. Frain, B., 2012.Responsive web design with HTML5 and CSS3. Packt Publishing Ltd. Gaines, B.R. and Monk, A.F., 2015. Cognitive Ergonomics: Understanding, Learning, and Designing Human-Computer Interaction. Academic Press. Helander, M.G. ed., 2014. Handbook of human-computer interaction. Elsevier. Jigsaw Store. (2017).Jigsaw Puzzle Online Store - Buy Jigsaw Puzzles - Ravensburger Puzzles. [online] Available at: https://www.jigsawstore.com.au/ [Accessed 28 Jul. 2017]. Johansen, R.D., Britto, T.C.P. and Cusin, C.A., 2013, May. CSS browser selector plus: a JavaScript library to support cross-browser responsive design. InProceedings of the 22nd International Conference on World Wide Web(pp. 27-30). ACM. Kim, B., 2013. Responsive web design, discoverability, and mobile challenge.Library technology reports,49(6), pp.29-39. Lazar, J., Feng, J.H. and Hochheiser, H., 2017.Research methods in human-computer interaction. Morgan Kaufmann. Leavitt, M.O. and Shneiderman, B., 2006. Based Web Design Usability Guidelines. Marcotte, E., 2017.Responsive web design: A book apart n 4. Editions Eyrolles. Palmer, J.W., 2002. Web site usability, design, and performance metrics.Information systems research,13(2), pp.151-167. Rogatnev, N., 2015. Responsive Web Design. Shneiderman, B., Plaisant, C., Cohen, M.S., Jacobs, S., Elmqvist, N. and Diakopoulos, N., 2016.Designing the user interface: strategies for effective human-computer interaction. Pearson.

The existence of God Based on Religious Experience free essay sample

1. Examine the strengths and weaknesses of the argument for the existence of God based on religious experience. (18) 2. ‘The argument merely indicates the probability of God and this is of little value to a religious believer.’ Discuss. (12) In contrast to the classical arguments for the existence of God, namely the ontological, cosmological and teleological arguments, the argument from religious experience doesn’t just entail a set logical of points arriving at a conclusion on a piece of paper, rather it also necessitates sense-based experience, tangible to the individual who experiences the divine. First and foremost, we must classify the argument from religious experience. In general, philosophical arguments usually take one of two forms: either they are deductive arguments, moving from general principles to unfolding the logical implications (e.g. the ontological argument); or they are inductive arguments, proposing the best explanation for a set of observations (e.g. the cosmological argument [â€Å"God is first cause†] and the teleological argument [â€Å"God is the final cause†]). We will write a custom essay sample on The existence of God Based on Religious Experience or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page Inductive arguments therefore lead to conclusions that are probabilities, which may require empirical verification. The argument from religious experience can be described as an inductive argument. And the inductive argument, reduced to a logical form, can be described as: P1: If an entity is directly experienced, it must exist; P2: God is the sort of being that can be directly experienced; P3: People have claimed, in fact, to have experienced God directly; C: Therefore God exists. The argument from religious experience also takes the form of an appeal to intuition (direct, immediate knowledge). In this regard, it is more of an assertion than a sophisticated, effable argument. Peter Donovan argues that we can essentially know God by religious experience, implying that experiencing God is a superior way of knowing him (intuitively) than our Reason (man’s mental capacity). In the terminology of the later philosophers, this is an a posteriori argument (dependent on observation or sense perception). Further classified, the argument from religious experience arrives at a synthetic proposition – namely that God exists. Synthetic statements are those that are true or false depending upon the circumstances, such as â€Å"All bachelors are sad,† as opposed to analytic statements which are true or false by definition,† such as â€Å"All bachelors are unmarried.† An a posteriori argument for a synthetic proposition means that, interestingly, philosophers working in both the Rationalist and Empiricist traditions could potentially accept this argument. Strictly speaking, the former believe that our mind shapes our experiences (like Kant) and the latter believe that our experiences shape our minds (like Hume). Having outlined the form of the argument, we must ask: what do we exactly mean by the phrase â€Å"religious experience† and what qualifies as religious experience? The term â€Å"religious experience† can conjure up a wide and diverse series of images. There could be trigger factors or contexts to having such an experience, for example, near death experiences, conversion (to another religion or better set of values), individual or collective worship and the sheer beauty of the universe. The most common way of defining religious experience is that it is â€Å"an encounter with the divine.† It could also be â€Å"an experience of religion†, or merely reduced to a â€Å"spiritual feeling† or â€Å"mysticism†. The pragmatic philosopher, William James describes religious experience as an experience where God is revealed and there is an experience with the divine. Those who insist on human spirituality (religious or a-religious) would argue the best way to know the supernatural is to experience it. However, such experiences are difficult to define collectively and remain individualistic. This is why the pragmatic philosopher, William James, in his Varieties of Religious Experience sees it necessary to characterise religious experience,  otherwise anything and everything could be considered an â€Å"experience of religion†. James lists four qualifiers of mystical experiences: ineffability (a state that defies description), noetic quality (revelations of universal and eternal truths), transiency (a brief but profoundly important experience) and passivity (a feeling of being taken over by a superior authority). The father of liberal theology, Schleiermacher, made â€Å"passivity† the most important qualifier. He took the concept a step further and proposed that the â€Å"essence of religion is the feeling of absolute dependence† and this approach was supported by scholars such as Rudolf Otto, who defined religious experience as â€Å"wholly other†. For Schleiermacher, in particular, and, additionally, the Islamic mystic Al-Ghazali, true religion was completely experiential and it should therefore be felt rather than thought. He believed that logic destroys religious experience because religious experience is a matter of intuitive knowledge, not processed knowledge. Intuition is belief, where as logic creates doubts. In many spiritual systems (religious or independent of religion) the human instinct is held in high regard. It was for this reason that Iqbal, the late Islamic philosopher of the modern era, disagreed with Al-Ghazali. Religious experience is a very important concept for those who believe that way to know God is to experience Him. There is a spiritual, mystical dimension to all the world religions – in fact, the Eastern religions rely heavily on sense-based knowledge. The Western religions are not devoid of this either. We have discussed Schleiermacher and his views are on par with Eastern Christianity. Al-Ghazali’s methodology is pertinent as it marks a time in Islamic thought where Sufism, or mysticism, became considered an orthodox practice. Al-Ghazali himself was given the alias â€Å"Proof of Islam† (Hujjat al-Islam). Religious experience is therefore seen as an important argument, if not concept within faith. Is it really the case that God can be experienced directly; granted that  people have what they call â€Å"religious experiences†, how can we verify that their cause is God and not some other cause; do the weaknesses of this argument necessarily entail the rejection of the conclusion? Firstly we can discuss the strengths and weaknesses of the argument in terms of its premises. P1 states that â€Å"If an entity is directly experienced, it exists†. Arguably, the proof we rely on most of all in the twenty-first century is our own experience. If we have seen, heard or experienced something, we accept the â€Å"truth† of whatever it may be. For those philosophers working in the Empiricist tradition (Hume, Bertrand Russell, Dawkins), this is appealing. The premise is an analytic statement – it is generally true by definition -, and therefore would be accepted by Logical Positivists and their Verificationism. P2 states that â€Å"God is the sort of being that can be experienced†. In the Classical Theism espoused by the three Abrahamic faiths, God is omnipotent, omnibenevolent and omniscient. He is also transcendent and immanent, personal and impersonal. With these major attributes, God is thought be able to be experienced, by default. Quranic injunctions, such as, â€Å"If you remember Him, He will remember you,† (2:152), and the concept of Ihsan – the Prophet Muhammad is recorded to have said, â€Å"Ihsan is to worship God as if you see him, and if you can’t do that then know that he is seeing You,† (Hadith of Gabriel in Sahih Bukhari and Sahih Muslim) – forms the basis of an experience-based God in Islam. However, is the Prophet Muhammad saying that one may â€Å"see† or â€Å"feel† God literally? The Ashari theologians of Sunni Islam argued that certain attributes of God which are seemingly anthromorphic should not be taken litera lly, so, when God mentions His â€Å"Hand† (Arabic: Yad) in the Quran, it is representative of his Power. Similarly, when we say God is â€Å"experienced†, what does this really mean? Despite being considered an orthodox theologian of Christianity, Thomas Aquinas argued that God cannot be experienced in the way that human beings experience things. This is because God is transcendent and above mortal senses of observation, smell, taste, hearing, touch and the sixth sense – often described as â€Å"intuition† and is vital to the processing of religious  experience. Similarly, Kant argues that given our human senses are finite and limited, it is impossible to ‘experience’ an infinite and unlimited God. P3 states that â€Å"People have claimed to experience God directly.† This premise is probably the most problematic, from various perspectives.   It is said that up to 28% of the human race have religious experiences in the sense that they have, at some point in their life, had an experience of being aware of the presence of God. Such experiences must be deconstructed. Hume, a Sceptic and Empiricist, argued that people who experience God are in fact lying or mentally ill. He also argued that different religious experience (and by extension miracles) from different religions cancel each other out. Take the example of Schleiermacher who uses religious experience to prove the superiority of Christianity, or Al-Ghazali who uses religious experience to prove the superiority of the Prophetic Way and Islam. The Prophet Muhammad’s religious experience (revelation) in the Cave of Hira in Mecca brought him the message of the One and Only God, on the other hand Guru Nanak’s experience opened the gateway to a more pantheistic God. A critical thinker may find discrepancy here, and conclude that all religions can’t be true, so their respective religious experiences can’t be true either. By reverse, someone pragmatic about religious experience may argue that what is important in religious experience is not necessarily the varying religions but God and the experience itself. This forms the basis of Perennial or Syncretistic mysticism, espoused by Sufi thinkers in the West like Fritjof Schuon and writers like William Dalrymple (he talks about the history of Religious Syncretism in India to promote pluralism). The reasoning behind this is: since all religions have developed a sense-based, mystical dimension, the truth lies in the experiences, not the religion, and so the experiences are to be extracted to alone which leads us to a supernatural being. For the Logical Positivists, such claims of religious experiences should be essentially verified to be proven as true. A. J. Ayer who promoted this  school of philosophy presented harsher ideas in his book â€Å"Language, Truth and Logic†. He said that any talk of God is essentially â€Å"nonsense† and â€Å"meaningless†. Similar to some religious theologians who believe God is above our logic, Ayer, despite being a de facto atheist, took it one step further and concluded that since God is above logic, we cannot talk about Him. Perhaps this is the reason for the ineffability of such experiences. But in some ways, this does not really contribute to whether the argument is true or not and acts as a barrier to discourse. Perhaps the harsh stance of the Logical Positivists does not produce any answers to our continuous questions. Freud, a materialist thinker and a renowned psychologist provided a natural explanation for such claimed religious experiences. He believed people were completely material beings. In other words, if we understood everything about the biological/physical side of life, we would fully understand human beings. Religious experiences for Freud were just illusions and were the result of a psychological need – for example, the desire to project a father image on to the universe having recognised their own fathers as fallible, human and finite. More particularly, he believed that they were projections of the ultimate, oldest and most profound ideas that people had. Dawkins, similarly, dismisses religious experience as â€Å"hallucinations†. He mentions the case of the â€Å"Yorkshire Ripper† who heard the voice of Jesus telling him to kill women. Even religious believers said accepted this as a hallucination. Why? Because of the belief that Jesus would never preach something â€Å"wrong†. A question to religious believers may be, that, if the â€Å"Yorkshire Ripper† had heard Jesus telling him to â€Å"love† and not â€Å"kill†, would it still be a hallucination? If the Yorkshire Ripper was clearly prone to having hallucinations, then at a medical and scientific level, this would still be a hallucination. If religious believers consider this false, then it shows a lack of objectivity. William James, presented a unique counterargument. He accepted that religious  experiences are psychological phenomena: that they occur within the brain and are cognitive. However, for James, this is not a flaw. Rather, these psychological experiences do not just have a physical justification, but also a supernatural one. The four qualities that James lists of religious experience are telling us that there are realities beyond this world. Another question then arises, beyond psychological disorder, are we experiencing God, or have we misunderstood? Is it not possible that a more rational thinking and modern person would sit and recollect their thoughts after such an experience? Perhaps it was not God that the person experienced, but just an energy part and parcel of the universe. If we take the example of a converted mosque in a British city and compare it to a beautifully designed mosque of Ottoman Turkey, a person is likely to â€Å"feel† the presence of God in the Ottoman mosque, than the mosque in Britain, despite the prayers being exactly the same. A natural explanation would be the architecture. Therefore, surroundings may play an important part in religious experiences. In Dawkins’ book, â€Å"The Magic of Reality†, he is keen to make the reader realise that there is a sort of natural, not supernatural, â€Å"magic† in the universe and things that humans create. We also forget the idea of atheistic mystical experience. Again, it may not be that one has experienced God. Many members of the New Age Spiritual Movement were non-believers. In fact, some forms of classical Hinduism and Buddhism do not necessarily require belief in a Creator, and no one can deny the importance of mysticism in the Eastern religion. Swinburne, on the other hand, argues that we should not be so cynical and regulatory of people’s own experiences. He proposes the â€Å"Principle of Credulity† and the â€Å"Principle of Testimony† which state that we ought to believe things are the way they seem to us in the absence of counter evidence. The final conclusion of the argument from religious experience is the synthetic proposition that â€Å"God exists†. Has there been a leap in conclusion? Can this synthetic proposition truly be proved or even accepted when there are so many problems among the premises? At the same time, if no body had religious experiences, there would be no basis for the idea of ‘god’, nor would there have been any reason for religions to have developed. The empirical nature of this argument, despite the experience not being able to be proved is very appealing in our rational yet sense-based age.